chapter 45 notes

Chapter 45
Hormones are chemical signals that are responsible for regulating body processes.
Blood transports hormones to the target tissues.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system consists of a collection of glands, cells and tissues that secrete hormones.
Its function is to regulate many aspects of metabolism, growth and reproduction.
Endocrine glands produce hormones and secrete them to the surrounding tissues and eventually into the capillaries.
Endocrinology is the study of endocrine gland function and hormonal effect on target tissues.
Exocrine glands release their secretions into ducts.
OVERLAP BETWEEN ENDOCRINE AND NERVOUS REGULATION
Some neurons secrete hormones (neurohormones) and are known as neurosecretory or neuroendocrine cells.
The regulation of several physiological processes involves structural and functional overlap between the endocrine and nervous systems.
Endocrine hormones regulate growth, development, fluid balance, metabolism and reproduction.
Hyposecretion: secretion lower than normal.
Hypersecretion: secretion higher than normal.
Homeostasis depends on the normal concentrations of hormones.
CONTROL PATHWAYS AND FEEDBACK LOOPS
Receptors or sensors throughout the body detect stimuli and send information to control center.
E. g. change in CO2 concentration in the blood.
The control center compares the signal to a “desired” value and sends out a signal to direct an effector to respond.
E.g. breathing centers in the pons and medulla oblongata; diaphragm and intercostal muscles receive a message to increase breathing.
Target cells have receptors that combine with a specific hormone. They are responsible for the specificity of the hormone. The receptors may be in or out of the cell.
Negative and positive feedback mechanisms control the amount of hormone and response needed.
Simple pathway: Stimulus → endocrine gland → hormone released into the blood → target
effector → response
Simple neurohormones pathway: Stimulus → sensory neuron → hypothalamus/pituitary → neurosecretory cell → hormone released into the blood → target effector → response
Simple neuroendocrine pathway: Stimulus → sensory neuron → hypothalamus/pituitary → neurosecretory cell → hormone released into the blood → endocrine gland → hormone into the blood → target effector → response
CHEMICAL SIGNALS TARGET CELL RECEPTORS
Hormones and other chemical signals bind to target cell receptors, initiating pathways that culminate in specific cell responses.
Review the mechanisms of chemical signaling, Chapter 11, p. 201.
HORMONE TYPES
Steroid hormones are synthesized from cholesterol, e.g. cortisol, progesterone, testosterone.
Amino acid derivatives called amines, e.g. thyroid, melatonin.
Peptide hormones are short chains of amino acids, e.g. secretin, ADH, oxytocin.
Modified fatty acids, e. g. prostaglandins.
Chemical signals produced by secretory cells either bind to a surface receptor or penetrates the cells and binds to a receptor inside the cell.
Receptor → transduction → response
Receptors for water-soluble hormones are embedded in the plasma membrane and project outward from the cell surface.
Intracellular receptors are found either in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus of the target cell.
Intracellular receptor proteins usually perform the entire transduction with the cell.
The chemical signal activates the receptor, which then directly triggers the cell's response.
The intracellular receptor activated by a hormone acts as a transcription factor.
The active factor, the receptor-hormone complex, activates or represses the transcription of a gene.
Epinephrine produces different responses in different target cells because the target cells have different transduction pathways.
PARACRINE SIGNALING
Local regulators affect neighboring target cells.
Some cells release hormones that act on nearby cells. This is called paracrine regulation.
Several types of chemical compounds function as local regulators; many are neurotransmitters.
Growth factors are peptides and proteins that stimulate cell reproduction and differentiation.
They must be present in the external environment for many cells to grow and develop normally.
GF may have several kinds of target cells and a variety of functions.
Cytokines are local regulators that play a role in the immune system.
Nitric oxide, NO, is a gas produced by many cells.
It is toxic and causes a fast reaction in cells before it is broken down.
It is secreted by neurons and functions as a neurotransmitter.
Secreted by leukocytes, kills bacteria and cancer cells in body fluids.
Released by endothelial cells, cause the blood vessels to relax and dilate.
Prostaglandins are modified fatty acids that have a wide range of activities.
Lungs, liver, digestive tract and reproductive organs release prostaglandins.
Affect cells in their immediate vicinity.
Mimic cyclic AMP and interact with other hormones that regulate many metabolic activities.
Some are involved in fever and inflammation.
Interleukins regulate immune responses.
VERTEBRATE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Tropic hormones affect other endocrine glands.
The hypothalamus and pituitary glands integrate many functions of the vertebrate endocrine system.
Table 45.1 summarizes the activity of major human hormones.
HYPOTHALAMUS
Part of the brain.
Links the endocrine system with the nervous system.
Most endocrine activity is controlled directly or indirectly by the hypothalamus.
Produces growth releasing and growth inhibiting hormones.
Anterior lobe of the pituitary is the target tissue.
Stimulates and inhibits secretion.
PITUITARY
At the base of the brain.
It has two regions that develop from different regions of the embryo and have different functions.
Posterior lobe of the pituitary or neurohypophysis.
The posterior pituitary gland is an extension of the hypothalamus.
Produces oxytosin.
Causes the uterus to contract during birth.
Causes the mammary glands to eject milk.
Produces antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
Causes the collecting ducts of the kidneys to reabsorb water.
Secretes growth-hormone-releasing hormone or GHRH and growth-hormone-inhibiting hormone or GHIH also called somatostatin.
Anterior lobe of the pituitary or adenohypophysis.
The anterior pituitary gland develops from a fold in the roof of the mouth of the embryo, which grows toward the brain and loses its connection with the mouth.
Tropic hormones stimulate other endocrine glands.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) causes the thyroid to secrete hormones.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), a peptide, stimulates the secretion of hormones by adrenal cortex.
Gonadotropic hormones (follicle-stimulating hormone, FSH, luteinizing hormone, LH) stimulate gonad functions.
Nontropic hormones are peptide/protein hormones function in simple neuroendocrine pathways.
Prolactin is a protein that stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk.
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), a peptide, regulates the activity of pigment containing cells in some vertebrates; in mammals probably acts as a feedback mechanism that targets the neurons of the hypothalamus.
Endorphins inhibit the perception of pain; increase the threshold of pain.
Nontropic and tropic effects:
Growth hormone (GH) stimulates linear body growth and tissue and organ growth by promoting protein synthesis.
A protein of about 200 amino acids.
Stimulates the uptake of AA from the blood and their incorporation into cellular proteins; increase in skeletal muscle mass.
Mobilizes fats from fat depots for transport to cells, increasing blood levels of fatty acids.
GH stimulates the liver to produce peptides called somatomedins including insulin-like growth factor, which stimulate bone and cartilage growth.
Secretion of GH is regulated by growth-hormone releasing hormone or GHRH and growth-hormone-inhibiting hormone or GHIH also called somatostatin. Both are released by the hypothalamus.
It has a diurnal cycle with the highest levels occurring during the night sleep; the total amount secrete peaks during adolescence and then decreases with age.
NONPITUITARY HORMONES
Nonpituitary hormones help regulate metabolism, homeostasis, development and behavior.
THYROID
In humans and other mammals, the thyroid is located at the base of the neck, on the ventral surface of the trachea.
Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) contain iodine. They are derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine.
T4 is converted to T3 in many cases in target cells.
The receptor protein is located in the cell nucleus and has greater affinity for T3.
Stimulate general growth and development, and the metabolic rate in most tissues by stimulating enzymes involved in glucose oxidation.
T4 and T3 help maintain normal blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tone, digestion, normal hydration and secretory activity of the skin, and reproductive ability and lactation in females.
T3 induces or suppresses the synthesis of enzymes.
Hypothyroidism in childhood leads to cretinism, retarded mental and physical development.
Hypersecretion causes a fast use of nutrients, hunger, excessive sweat, high body temperature, nervousness, irritability and emotional instability.
These hormones require iodine. Lack of iodine causes goiter due to an over production of THS by the anterior pituitary.
The secretion of thyroid hormones is controlled by the hypothalamus through a negative feedback mechanism.
It affects every cell in the body except the adult brain, spleen, testes, uterus and the thyroid gland itself.
Goiter is a disease caused by hypothyroidism. In the absence of enough thyroid hormones, the hypothalamus continues to produce TSH, which leads to an increase in the size of the thyroid.
Produces calcitonin, which works antagonistically to the parathyroid hormone.
Lowers the blood calcium level by inhibiting calcium release form bones.
Stimulates calcium incorporation into the bone matrix.
Calcitonin activity is important in childhood when the skeleton grows quickly but is weak in adults.
PARATHYROID
These glands are embedded in the connective tissue surrounding the thyroid.
Secrete the parathyroid hormone (PTH) that regulates calcium level in the blood and tissue fluid.
Stimulate calcium release from bones. PTH stimulates the osteoclasts to decompose bone matrix.
Stimulates calcium reabsorption from the kidney, and conversion of vitamin D to its active form.
Vitamin D acts together with PTH and increases the absorption of calcium in the intestines. Vitamin D binds to receptors in the nuclei of target cells and regulates gene transcription.
It increases the concentration of Ca2+ in the blood and has an effect opposite to that of the thyroid hormone calcitonin.
Lack of PTH causes a drop of Ca2+ in the blood leading to convulsion of skeletal muscles.
ISLETS OF THE PANCREAS OR OF LANGERHANS.
The pancreas is considered a major endocrine gland but only 1 – 2% (by weight) of its cells secrete hormones. The rest of the cells are involved in the production of digestive enzymes.
About 1 million little clusters of cells scattered throughout the pancreas.
Alpha cells secrete glucagon (29-amino-acid polypeptide), which increases the concentration of glucose in the blood. Its major target is the liver.
Beta cells secrete insulin (51-amino-acid polypeptide), which lowers the concentration of glucose in the blood.
Insulin stimulates cells to take up glucose, inhibits the release of glucose from the liver, stimulates the deposit of fat in the adipose tissue, and inhibits the use of amino acids.
Glucose concentration regulates the secretion of glucagon and insulin.
The concentration of glucose is maintained in humans near 90mg/100mL of blood.
Insulin also inhibits the glycogen break down in the liver and inhibits the conversion of amino acids and glycerol from fats to sugar.
In general, insulin takes glucose out of the blood, causing it to be used in energy production or converted to other forms (glycogen and fats), and promotes protein synthesis and fat storage.
Diabetes mellitus is an endocrine disorder.
Type I diabetics do not produce enough insulin. The immune system or a virus destroys beta cells.
Type II diabetics produce enough insulin but the receptors on target cells cannot bind to it.
The adrenal glands are located above each kidney.
ADRENAL MEDULLA
Helps the body cope with stress, increases the heart rate, blood pressure, metabolic rate, reroutes blood, mobilize fats and increase glucose level in the blood, dilates bronchioles, decreases digestive system activity and urine output.
Secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine. These hormones belong to a group of compounds called catecholamines, and derived from the amino acid tyrosine.
Their secretion is a response to stress.
Nervous system can increase their production.
ADRENAL CORTEX
Adrenal secretions do not initiate cellular and enzymatic activity but permit many biochemical reactions to proceed at optimal rates.
Secretes three hormones in significant amounts, but more than 30 steroids have been isolated.
The adrenal cortex responds to endocrine stimulus rather than the nervous system.
Hypothalamus → pituitary releases ACTH → adrenal cortex secretes corticosteroids.
Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) maintain sodium and potassium balance by increasing sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidney tubules; increase in blood pressure and volume.
Glucocorticoids (cortisol) help the body adapt to stress, raise blood glucose level and mobilize fats and proteins for sugar production, and suppress the immune system.
Cortisone suppresses inflammation. Excessive amount of glucocorticoids suppresses the immune system.
DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) is converted in the tissues to testosterone.
Elevated levels of corticosteroids inhibit the secretion of ACTH.
There is evidence that corticosteroids help maintain homeostasis when the body experiences stress over an extended period of time.
A third group of corticosteroids are sex hormones, androgens and small amounts of estrogens. The physiological role of adrenal sex hormones is not well understood.
GONADS
Gonadal steroids regulate growth, development, reproductive cycles, and sexual behavior.
The gonads, testes and ovaries, produce androgens, estrogens and progestins.
Testes produce mainly testosterone, an androgen. It is responsible for secondary male characteristics.
Ovaries produce estrogens, the most important of which is estradiol. It is responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics of women.
The hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary by releasing GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone).
The gonadotropin hormones LH and FSH, from the anterior pituitary control the synthesis of estrogens and androgens.
PINEAL GLAND
The pineal gland or body is located near the center of the mammalian brain. In other animals it is found closer to the surface of the brain.
Pineal body in the brain releases melatonin, a modified amino acid, which influences biological rhythms, sleep and the onset of sexual maturity.
Melatonin concentration increases at night and makes us drowsy.
Lowest levels occur during daylight hours around noon.
Depending on the species, the pineal body has connections from the eyes, and receives input about the intensity of light and length of the day
Melatonin secretion is a link between a biological clock daily or seasonal activity.
In some animals, mating behavior and gonadal size varies with the length of daylight and dark periods. Melatonin is involved in these effects.
An area of the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is rich in melatonin receptors and functions as a biological clock.
Changing melatonin concentration may also be a means by which the day-night cycles influence physiological processes that show rhythmic variations, such as body temperature, sleep, appetite, and hypothalamic activity in general.
Melatonin seems to decrease the activity of the SCN neurons. Bright light suppresses melatonin secretion.
There is still a lot to learn about this gland.
INVERTEBRATE HORMONES
Among insects, hormones are secreted mainly by neurons.
Hormones regulate regeneration in hydras, flatworms and annelids, molting and metamorphosis in insects, color changes in crustaceans, reproductive behavior and other activities.
In hydras, the hormone that stimulates growth and budding inhibits sexual reproduction.
Crustaceans have endocrine glands and neuroendocrine cells.
Molting, reproduction, heart rate and metabolism are influenced by hormones.
Pigment cells are located beneath the exoskeleton.
Pigment distribution is controlled by the neurosecretory cells.
Dispersed pigments cause color changes
Insect development is controlled by the interaction of various hormones.
Generally an environmental factor affects neuroendocrine cells in the brain.
Brain secretes BH hormone (brain hormone) that stimulates the prothoracic gland to produce MH, molting hormone or ecdysome, which stimulates growth and molting.
JH, juvenile hormone, maintains the larval stage and prevents metamorphosis.
When the JH decreases the larva develops into a pupa.
In the absence of JH, the pupa molts and becomes an adult.
The amount of JH decreases